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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">Astronomy Reports</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Astronomy Reports</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Астрономический журнал</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn publication-format="print">0004-6299</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">3034-5170</issn><publisher><publisher-name xml:lang="en">The Russian Academy of Sciences</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">691025</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.31857/S0004629925080028</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="edn">qhwzpa</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>Articles</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>СТАТЬИ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="article-type"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title xml:lang="en">Effect of luminosity outbursts on the amount of pebbles and ice mantles in protoplanetary disks</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Влияние вспышек светимости на содержание гальки и ледяных мантий в протопланетном диске</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Topchieva</surname><given-names>A. P.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Топчиева</surname><given-names>А. П.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><email>ATopchieva@inasan.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Molyarova</surname><given-names>T. S.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Молярова</surname><given-names>Т. С.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Vorobyov</surname><given-names>E. I.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Воробьев</surname><given-names>Э. И.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Institute of Astronomy of the Russian Academy of Sciences</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Федеральное государственное бюджетное учреждение Российской академии наук Институт астрономии</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff2"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Research Institute of Physics, Southern Federal University</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Научно-исследовательский институт физики, Южный Федеральный Университет</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date date-type="pub" iso-8601-date="2025-08-15" publication-format="electronic"><day>15</day><month>08</month><year>2025</year></pub-date><volume>102</volume><issue>8</issue><issue-title xml:lang="en">VOL 102, NO8 (2025)</issue-title><issue-title xml:lang="ru">ТОМ 102, №8 (2025)</issue-title><fpage>653</fpage><lpage>670</lpage><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2025-09-21"><day>21</day><month>09</month><year>2025</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright ©; 2025, Russian Academy of Sciences</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="ru">Copyright ©; 2025, Российская академия наук</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Russian Academy of Sciences</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Российская академия наук</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" start_date="2026-08-15"/></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://journals.eco-vector.com/0004-6299/article/view/691025">https://journals.eco-vector.com/0004-6299/article/view/691025</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p>Dust growth is one of the key processes leading to planet formation in protoplanetary disks. Centimeter-sized dust grains — pebbles — are essential for the formation of planetesimals through streaming instability and play a crucial role in the formation of protoplanetary cores, giant planets, and the enrichment of their atmospheres with chemical elements. This study investigates the impact of luminosity outbursts on the amount of pebbles and icy mantles in a protoplanetary disk. We perform global simulations of the formation and evolution of a self-gravitating, viscous protoplanetary disk using the two-dimensional thin-disk hydrodynamic code FEOSAD, which self-consistently produces luminosity outbursts. The model includes thermal balance, dust evolution and its interaction with gas, the development of magnetorotational instability, adsorption and desorption of four volatile species (H2O, CO2, CH4, and CO), and the feedback of icy mantles on the fragmentation properties of dust aggregates. Our results show that luminosity outbursts have a stronger impact on the snowlines of CO2, CH4, and CO than on the water snowline. This is because the H2O snowline resides in a region dominated by viscous heating during the early stages of disk evolution, whereas the snowlines of the other molecules lie in regions where stellar irradiation dominates the thermal structure, making them more sensitive to temperature variations induced by the outbursts. Nevertheless, luminosity outbursts lead to a twofold reduction in the total amount of pebbles in the disk due to the fragmentation of dust aggregates into monomers following the loss of water ice, which acts as a binding agent. The reformation of pebbles occurs over several thousand years after the outburst, primarily through collisional coagulation. The characteristic timescales for pebble recovery significantly exceed the freezing timescales of water ice. The desorption of icy mantles occurs in a highly non-axisymmetric and intrinsically two-dimensional region of the disk, which is linked to the formation of spiral substructures during the early evolution of a gravitationally unstable disk.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p>Рост пыли — один из ключевых процессов, приводящих к формированию планет в протопланетных дисках. Пыль сантиметровых размеров — галька — необходима для формирования планетезималей в результате потоковой неустойчивости, и играет важную роль в формировании протопланетных ядер и планет-гигантов, а также в обогащении их атмосфер химическими элементами. В работе исследовано влияние вспышек светимости на содержание гальки и ледяных мантий в протопланетном диске. Проведено глобальное моделирование формирования и эволюции самогравитирующего вязкого протопланетного диска с использованием двумерного гидродинамического кода в приближении тонкого диска FEOSAD, который позволяет самосогласованно воспроизводить вспышки светимости. Модель включает в себя тепловой баланс, эволюцию пыли и ее взаимодействие с газом, развитие магниторотационной неустойчивости, адсорбцию и десорбцию четырех летучих соединений (H2O, CO2, CH4 и CO), и влияние ледяных мантий на фрагментационные свойства пыли. Показано, что вспышки светимости сильнее влияют на положения линий льдов CO2, CH4 и CO, чем на линии льдов воды. Это связано с тем, что линия льдов H2O попадает в область доминирования вязкого нагрева на ранних стадиях эволюции диска, в то время как линии льдов других молекул находятся в области доминирования нагрева излучением звезды и, следовательно, более чувствительны к изменению температуры вследствие вспышки. Тем не менее вспышки светимости приводят к снижению полного количества гальки в диске вдвое из-за распада пыли на мономеры в результате потери водяных льдов, связующих агрегаты в единое целое. Восстановление гальки происходит в течение нескольких тысяч лет после завершения вспышки благодаря столкновительной коагуляции, при этом временны́е характеристики восстановления значительно превышают времена замерзания воды. Десорбция ледяных мантий происходит в существенно двумерной области диска сложной неосесимметричной формы, что связано с образованием спиралевидных субструктур на ранних стадиях эволюции гравитационно неустойчивого диска.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>interstellar dust</kwd><kwd>interstellar medium</kwd><kwd>protoplanetary disks</kwd><kwd>astrochemistry</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>межзвездная пыль</kwd><kwd>межзвездная среда</kwd><kwd>протопланетные диски</kwd><kwd>астрохимия</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><body></body><back><ref-list><ref id="B1"><label>1.</label><mixed-citation>A. Morbidelli, M. Lambrechts, S. Jacobson, and B. Bitsch, Icarus 258, 418 (2015), arXiv:1506.01666 [astro-ph.EP].</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B2"><label>2.</label><mixed-citation>A. Johansen and M. Lambrechts, Ann. Rev. Earth and Planet. Sci. 45(1), 359 (2017).</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B3"><label>3.</label><mixed-citation>A.N. Youdin and J. 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